Busting Stereotypes With Intercultural Communication

Through Participation in the Partners of the Americas

Betty B. Brown

University of Northern Colorado

December 7, 2006

COMM600: Graduate Study in Communication

Dr. Thomas Endres

Abstract

Intercultural communication is often studied in the environment of global business or international education. This paper will explore intercultural communication for application in the environment of visits and exchanges within the Partners of the Americas organization. By using a review of communication literature, standing research will be considered to determine if communication is an essential ingredient in overcoming stereotypes and building international community. The paper will reach across disciplines, just as the Partners of the Americas reaches across borders, in an attempt to give an overview of attitudes in a variety of academic writing regarding intercultural communication. Because this writer lives in North America, the paper will understandably be approached from this personal perspective, hopefully not ethnocentric.

Key words: generalizations, stereotypes, international relationships, intercultural communication, storytelling

Busting Stereotypes with Intercultural Communication

Through Participation in the Partners of the Americas

“Be safe in Brazil.” “Well, at least the weather will be cooler in November.” These kindly comments were included in a friendly conversation before my cultural exchange trip to Minas Girais. They revealed some common stereotypes and generalizations: Brazil is perceived as being dangerous and hot. These negative traits are true in some areas of this beautiful country, though certainly not all. Minas Girais, for example, the location of my visit, is a mountainous mining area; similar to Colorado, which is why the Partners of the Americas pairs the Colorado chapter with this Brazilian state. Just as many areas of Colorado are scenic and welcoming to tourists, not all areas would be considered safe. Yet, travelers would never be discouraged from visiting colorful Colorado.

After examining existing research literature, this paper will consider the importance of intercultural communication and how it can be used to overcome negative stereotypes and generalizations about other countries and people, especially those of Latin America. Because I am a Caucasian, a resident of North America, the approach will understandably be written from this perspective. This confessive disclaimer is an attempt to frame and avoid ethnocentricism. In other words, I bring my own cultural baggage to this project, but am willing to modify my patterns and manners of interaction to discover the value of intercultural communication. As Kamler and Threadgold would also confess, an “individualistic and Western pedagogy” has to be acknowledged before it can be avoided (2003, p. 149).

RQ: How can a study of existing literature on intercultural communication reveal the merits of the discipline and indicate how stereotyping should and can be avoided?

Literature Review

Literature reviews are an efficient way to synthesize or combine existing information in a particular field. According to Chaffee and Lieberman, the reader of a Literature Review expects to learn a lot without working too hard, so new ideas should be fully explained. “Conclusions should be highlighted,” working definitions supplied, and general principles consistently supported. (2001, p. 42). With these directives in mind, an overview of international communication using independent variable categories will be provided in the following paragraphs, to be followed by application to a specific international organization.

Intercultural communication

Intercultural communication is a rather new area of academic study, beginning after World War II when the United States emerged as a world power. President John F. Kennedy reacted to the term “global village” when he “challenged Americans to serve their country and the cause of peace by living and working in the developing world” (Kim, 2005, p. 554). Kennedy’s Peace Corps provided the motivation for some researchers who hoped their studies could “promote better understanding of cultures and communication in non-Western societies” (Kim, 2005, 554). This awareness that we live in an international arena is the motivation for intercultural communication.

Intercultural communication (ICC) contains two separate study approaches. Emci, or insider studies, sees cultural communication as relatively stable system that can be described or interpreted using research methods such as ethnography, discourse, conversational or rhetorical analysis (Kim, p. 557). These studies deepen our understanding of the communication practices unique to a particular cultural community. On the other hand, Etic, or objective, outsider studies, compares two or more cultural groups perhaps using individualism-collectivism theories (Kim, p. 558). Scholars of development communication (DC), a branch of intercultural communication studies, are committed to the ideals of changing the “status quo of inequality on behalf of the underprivileged and underrepresentated” offering ideas of empowerment, participatory communication, and participatory action research” (Kim, 2005, p. 569). Both branches seek to explore diverse groups to discover and explain the peculiarities and problems of intercultural communication.

The emphasis of intercultural communication is on “improving the face-to-face communication between people from diverse cultures…particularly beneficial when it focuses on symbolic, interactional processes between people (Ziegahn, 2001, p. 11). This diversity can be embraced as a positive value, when differences are welcomed rather than feared and people learn from one another. In other words, we need to learn about people of other cultures and countries in order to survive and prosper in our “global village.” Developing intercultural communication competence (ICC) can lead to successful outcomes in international settings. Before that can happen, we need an understanding of how our own cultural identity affects our perspective or that “sense of historical connection and embeddedness and of a “larger” existence in the collectivity of a group”(Kim, 2005p. 561). This would be a good place to discuss or mention collectivist/individualistic differences, non-verbal differences, et al…and how they affect our ability to relate to others. Understanding of self is key to understanding others.

Problems of intercultural communication

This area of study is huge, involving as it were, the entire world. According to Kamler and Threadgold “just how difficult translations and representations of culture really are and how easily preconceptions and cultural positionings interfere with the process of communication (p. 137). “ … contribute to deeper understandings of the potential workings of representation in cross-cultural encounters whenever communities meet and interact” (p. 138).

“A significant number of researchers have investigated intrapersonal (psychological) processes to describe and/or explain the inherently problematic nature of intercultural communication by focusing on psychological factors such as stereotype, ethnocentrism, prejudice, racism, and (in)tolerance” (Kim, 2005, p. 558) or communication divergence. Add thoughts here about shared incompetence, negotiation without losing face, maintaining identities

Gudykunst – anxiety, uncertainty, and mindfulness to explain and predict “the levels of psychological adjustment experienced by sojourners who cross individualistic and collectivistic cultural boundaries” (Kim, 2005p. p. 561).

Because any group can experience some tension, negotiation, or face-to-face problem solving is “at the core of intercultural communication activities in general and intercultural communication, in particular” (Kim, 2005, p. 562).

Stereotypes, what are they and how they interfere with communication

Some definitions of stereotypes will help in exploring how they stand in the way of intercultural communication. According to Hoyt, stereotypes are cognitive structures that influence the way individuals process information (2005, p. 2). Kurtz-Costes and Rowley add, “stereotypes are generalized judgment about an individual, based on his/her membership in a particular social group…they are powerful and can negatively influence” (2005, p. 437). The efficiency of stereotypes can result in cursory judgments. “This increased reliance on prior knowledge suggests that stereotypes might block incoming information” (Araya, et al, 2003, p. 433). And, last but not least, “Stereotyping is related to enthnocentrism in that faulty generalizations one has of another group can perpetuate the notion that the group is inferior to one’s own” (Penington and Wildermuth, 2005, p. 176). These inaccuracies create barriers to intercultural communication.

There is that tendency to “judge opposing styles in terms of our own beliefs” (Ziegahn, 2001, p. 12). “During the process of communication we often turn consciously or unconsciously to ethnocentric behavior, stereotyping, and biases, which may result in cultural friction” (Muhammad, 2005, p. 353). Intercultural communication avoids placing ourselves in that central focus location, ignoring or minimizing individual differences. Stereotyping ignores individual differences, lumping all people of a group into one category or exaggerating perceptions of a particular group. Sczesny, et al, indicate that stereotypes develop from and are perpetuated because of perceived incongruities (2004). Stereotyping leads to prejudice when a culture’s negative features are overestimated (Muhammad, 2005). A few lines from the poem, Stereotype, illustrate the fears that can result from this kind of negativity. “She’s mythical, misconceived, Black men’s prey. A potential victim of socially-constructed perceived purse snatchers…beware. Don’t risk…”(Thomas, 2004, 26).

Many times these inaccurate perceptions happen when people believe second-hand stories because they have limited or no interaction from people of other cultures or lands. Peters, describing a negative graduate school experience, relates

At our campus there was a Latino group, which was comprised mostly of upper-class students, primarily with parents from Central or South America, and a Hispanic group, primarily lower or lower-middle class students from the United States. There was almost no interaction between them, because the Latinos perceived the Hispanics as lower-class, and the Hispanics thought the Latinos were snobs. (1997, p. 305).

These students robbed themselves of potentially beneficial experiences. Muhammad’s comments seem to sum up the value of intercultural communication in overcoming stereotypes. “Stereotypes, prejudices, discrimination, and racism are all obstacles to creating a harmonious society” (2005, p. 255) and “When we do not want to know about or avoid exploring other cultures, ethnocentricity prevails” (2005, p. 35)

Telling stories/narratives contributes to intercultural communication

According to Ornish, see APA manual for how to phrase this quoted in Remen, such opportunities “help us see beyond the veil of our beliefs and our judgements of ourselves and others and see the world with wonder and wisdom…” (Remen, p. 10). Great communication events can happen “when people are open to each other’s perspectives” (Valadez, 2001, p. 1). Three elements are critical in effective cross-cultural interactions, especially when there is no common language, mutual respect, an attitude of openness and acceptance, and finally honest commitment to the task at hand (Valadez, 2001).

Direct experience might be described as a time “when our worlds connect or collide and we are given the opportunity to understand another’s construction or perhaps to change our own.” (Miller, 2006, p. 36). Both have merits and drawbacks. Face to face“…dialogue has important potential for intercultural understanding, alliance building, and social change” (DeTurk, 2006, p. 33). This dialogue reduces stereotyping, increases comfort, and, in the long run, works toward social justice as people reconsider how they think about the world. “Interpersonal relationships …challenge…taken-for-granted assumptions” DeTurk, 2006, p. 36). Generalizations do not hold up under such interactions; stereotypes and prejudices are weakened as an awareness of others is strengthened. Stereotypes and prejudices break down through dialogue and create a new broadmindedness as one’s egocentric and ethnocentric limitations are acknowledged (DeTurk, 2006). By coming together face-to-face, each person’s humanity is affirmed. Storytelling or dialogue becomes “a powerful means of sharing, connecting, teaching, and understanding” (DeTurk, 2006, p. 47).

Since stereotyping typically is hierarchical in nature, Huici, et al, cites Wilder “pleasant contact with a member of the out-group improved evaluations of the out-group only when the person was viewed as typical of the out-group” (1996, p. 278). One way to disconfirm stereotypes, therefore, is by exchanging stories and sharing life experiences. People of different lands and cultures will discover in so doing that they much in common, that they are equals.

Craig on Cameron’s argument: “…beliefs about good communication currently ascendant in mainstream British and American culture reflect middle class, feminine stereotypes and questionably imply that men, working class people, and ethnic minorities are deficient in communication skills.” P. 44

Facts of Brazil (from Kiss, Bow)

Colonized by Portugal in 1500, main language is Portuguese, 90% Roman Catholic, 90% of people live on 10% of land. Negotiation strategy: approach problems indirectly, allow feeling to dictate the solution – family loyalty is highest duty (nepotism), class described in economic terms, strong color bias, women are insubordinate (current & past POA presidents are women) – conduct business though personal connections, expect long-term relationships – women greet by kissing on opposite cheeks – communication done in close proximity, friendly, touching, lots of physical interaction – “fig” gesture means good luck – candy makes good all-around gift

Discussion

Recent headlines in the New York Times, one major national newspaper, illustrate why people of the United States tend to lump all citizens of Latin America into a negative stereotypical group. “With beheadings, drug gangs terrorize Mexico.” “Nicaraguan’s votes are in, Ortega is back.” The Sandanista and foe of the USA has been returned to power back after 16 years. “Venezuelan’s diatribe at U. N. may have backfired.” Hugo Chavez’s well publicized performance may or may not have cost his country a seat on the Security Council, but it definitely did not win him any new friends in the USA. Such violent and/or threatening stories interfere with interaction by creating “generalized anxiety, leading to stereotypes, and finally to prejudice or category-based responses, omitting the “effortful process of getting to know an individual in detail” (Wheeler and Fiske, 2005, p. 56).

If the “main focus of intercultural communication studies has been the direct contact and interaction of individuals of differing cultural backgrounds” (Kim, 2005, p. 555), then Partners of the Americas offers a logical place for study. “The gap is a broad gap if the two sides are from a low-context and a high-context culture” (Muhammand, 2005, p. 356). This is quite true of the diverse counties of North, Central, and South America. Samovar and Porter indicate that the majority of immigrants in the United States come from Latin America and one-half of foreign born residents are natives of Mexico, Central America, or the Caribbean (2001).

Partners of the Americas: the value of the organization, the intercultural communication structure and the importance

Kim defines culture as “a label or category representing the collective life experiences of recognizable large groups such as a nation or work region” (2005, p. 556). The exchanges organized by the Partners of the Americas helps members to understand culturally programmed psychological processes such as values, attitudes, beliefs, and or norms. POA members, therefore, contribute to intercultural communication. Members have certain key communication traits in common including, a knowledge of their own culture, an appreciation that others are different, flexibility, open minds, and most important, a willingness to practice intercultural competency (Penington andWildermuth, 20005).

This organization supports Kennedy’s dream of a global village, with her remarks concerning universalism. “The worldview highlights the common human needs, aspirations, and capabilities for betterment of life conditions that transcend cultural, ethnic, and historical contingencies” 2005, p. 564). Past exchanges supporting endeavors in Minas Girais from the Colorado chapter have incorporated classical music, classes for the children of migrant workers on coffee plantations, playground safety, and women’s rights. The professions of visitors coming to Colorado have included musicians, pediatricians, dairy farmers, and members of the judicial system. These varied exchanges have allowed a multitude of conversations about universal concerns. Identities are not threatened but rather respected. As confirmed by Smith and Downs, the matching of interests and expectations predicts continued successful partnerships (2004). Since exchanges usually only involve one or two people, the guests are not insulated as they would be if traveling with groups. Guests stay in host homes and therefore interact more with the local community. Two-way exchanges allow members to occasionally feel like a cultural outsider, a member of an out-group, or a minority. These reactions would not take place if members did not venture out of their safe and comfortable home environment.

Wilcox as quoted by George, defines international public relations as “the planned and organized effort of a company, institution, or government to establish mutually beneficial relations with the publics of other nations” (George, 2005, p. 100).

“The events of September 11, 2001, highlighted the importance of international and intercultural understanding in global politics “ (George, 2005, p. 97).

Culture defined “as shared meaning…as communication…and as a system of knowledge…as the coherent, learned, shared view a group of people has about life’s concerns that rank what is important, instills attitudes about what things are appropriate, and prescribes behavior…a composite set of patterns …characteristic of the members of a society…” (George, 2005, p. 101-102). See notes on p. 103 about low and high context communication in dealing with conflict Cross cultural experiences, increase our ability to adapt when we seek positive experiences (Muhammed, 2005). Partners of the Americas offers this opportunity as well as a motivation for seeing things from another’s perspective.

“… effective intercultural and international communication is not possible without the cooperation of the media” (George, 2005, p. 104). Note negative news articles about immigration, Venezuelan President Chavez, and more that give our neighbors to the south the impression of danger

Facts about Partners of the Americas use maps or other material during the presentation

The organization is only 42 years old, slightly younger than the discipline of intercultural communication. The group is built on John F. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress. Many members have former involvement with the Peace Corps, finding the benefits of short term commitments with POA that do not disrupt their families and carets as a longer commitment would do. A Brazilian is the current Chairman of the Board. Napoleon Baldonera is a financially successful, European looking gentleman in every sense of the word, whose mannerisms easily disarm and relax those with whom he interacts. Even my description of him reveals ethnocentrism…

Martin and Nakayama’s description of the communication discipline as being racist was a surprise. Moon’s term “whitespeak” indicates that this is exclusion by ignorance and “creates a community through white bonding” (p. 80). Communication studies need to reflect a “more racially diverse society” and a “more globally oriented world” (p. 81).

Interpretations handled in real-time, a United Nations type of modeling with headphones to hear the translators, who have booths… How are they chosen??? “The interpreter was in a considerable position of power vis-à-vis the making of knowledge” (Kamler & Threadgold, p. 141) “a need for appointing a translator who is not a part of the group…without an agenda (p. 142) “Translations…are never easy, never transparent, never simple encodings and decodings from one language to another” (Kamler & Threadgold, p. 146).

“Studies of intercultural contact reflect this same centering of whiteness (Cooks, Halualani) note that “the most glaring shortcoming in intercultural contact literature is the predominant focus on majority (or white/European American) attitudes toward interacting with minority groups (p. 274). Again, communication studies clearly is in the service of white people at the expense of racial others” (p. 79).

See the list of references following this chapter for more research ideas and material

So what???

Future research

A survey of members, using empirical methods (make sure I understand what this means!) would be the next step in studying communication in the Partners of the Americas. Conditions can be less than perfect if a researcher’s presence is seen as intrusive. As a member of POA, I have the platform on which to conduct an examination. The researcher needs to be aware of course, that a person’s motives can “color” their story. Therefore, as broad a representation as possible would need to be chosen. Membership, travel, and hosting all offer the opportunity for Partners to come into contact with others. A discovery of similar feelings, struggles, and experiences are some of the many results. DeTurk suggests that additional interviews could add to the conclusions of current intercultural communication studies. “Comparable studies of other regions, time periods, and dialogue programs would be welcome and permit more generally applicable observations” (2006, p. 49). I would like to propose doing so with members of the Partners of the Americas.

Appendix A contains a proposed list of questions that could be asked of North American members of Partners of the Americas to encourage guided reflections regarding their experiences. Because linguistic diversity can create immediate pragmatic and representational difficulties, there are inherent problems with research design as well as with basic communication. As experienced by Kamler and Threadgold, there are “dilemmas of reaching across borders of race, ethnicity, and class (2003, p. 138). It is recognized, therefore, that these questions are not all-encompassing but can serve as a basis to extend dialogue and to help members understand where their own stereotypes might inhibit positive interactions. POA members that have been given travel grants already have the responsibility of completing a de-briefing report, so members are in the habit of considering the impact of their visits to a sister state. One possible difficulty with this study would be taping follow-up interviews due to the logistics of living in different countries. Adding to the study, for comparative purposes, would be a design conducting a similar survey of college students or other adults who have not traveled abroad.

Conclusion

More than anything else, intercultural communication is about being face-to-face with people from other lands and cultures. That is one of the strengths and beauties of the Partners of the Americas organizations. Through exchanges, people of the United States are brought face-to-face with their neighbors in Central and South America, telling stories and sharing narratives, even when there are language barriers. In fact, the Partners of the Americas framework contains the opportunity for multiple applications of communication theory that reach beyond intercultural. These exchanges could be studied for theory application of nonverbal, interpersonal, small group, organizational, feminist, or even rhetorical devices. The assortment of possible research methods seems to illustrate the diversity of the people participating in intercultural communication. Muhammad’s suggestion could be implemented as an alternate slogan for the Partners of the Americas. “…these differences should not constitute grounds for separation, negligence, prejudice, and bias, but rather for respect, sincerity, understanding, and cooperation” (2005, p. 359). John F. Kennedy’s legacy continues in this worldwide view, as borders are minimized with intercultural communication.
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· (Demographic information)

What is your age? Sex? Level of education?

What country is your home?

· Please describe your international travels?

If a citizen of the United States, have you traveled south of the country? Where?

If a citizen elsewhere, have you traveled north? Where?

Have you visited your partner state?

· Have you hosted members from your partner state? If so, briefly describe the experience.

· What is your native language? What other languages do you speak/read?

· Why did you become a member of POA?

· How long have you been a member?

· How has membership changed your views of Latin America? Of North Americans?

· What previous perceptions or misconceptions of your southern/northern neighbors have changed based on your POA membership?

· Do you have connection to the Peace Corps? If so, describe.